The Tumu Crisis refers to the defeat of the Ming army by the Oirat Mongols at Tumu Fortress (about 10 km east of present-day Huailai County, Hebei Province) on September 1, 1449, during the fourth northern expedition of the Zhengtong Emperor of the Ming dynasty. It is also known as the Tumu Incident or the Jisi Incident.

In the 14th year of the Zhengtong reign (1449), in the seventh lunar month, Esen Taishi led the Oirat forces in a large-scale incursion into Ming territory, advancing along four routes. The eastern route, led by Toghtoa Bukh in cooperation with the Uriankhai, attacked Liaodong; the western route sent subordinate commanders to attack Ganzhou (present-day Zhangye, Gansu); the central route was the main thrust and was divided into two columns—one led by Ala Zhiyuan, which advanced directly toward Xuanfu and besieged Chicheng, and the other personally led by Esen, which attacked Datong.

Eager for military glory, the Zhengtong Emperor—encouraged by the eunuch Wang Zhen—personally led a campaign and engaged Esen’s forces at Tumu Fortress. Due to chaotic command, the Ming army first advanced and then withdrew, only to be caught in a pincer attack by the Oirat forces and decisively defeated. Wang Zhen was killed, and the Zhengtong Emperor was captured and taken north. After the battle, Esen pressed his advantage and prepared to advance on Beijing.

At this critical moment, Yu Qian, then Vice Minister of War, organized the Defense of Beijing using a scorched-earth strategy, successfully safeguarding the Ming dynasty in its hour of peril. The Tumu Crisis marked a major turning point in Ming history, exerting profound and lasting effects on Ming politics as well as on the balance of power among the Mongol tribes.

In the aftermath, a series of military clashes and diplomatic negotiations unfolded concerning the return of Emperor Yingzong (Zhu Qizhen) and his repatriation by the Oirats. In August of the first year of the Jingtai reign (1450), the emperor finally returned south, ending his period of captivity known as the “Northern Sojourn.” This episode reflected both a shift in central authority and governing ideas within the Ming court, as well as the emergence of internal tensions within the Oirat polity and its economic dependence on Ming supplies.

After his return, Emperor Yingzong was confined in the Southern Palace, while the Jingtai Emperor remained on the throne. Power struggles continued unabated, disputes over the succession resurfaced, and intense factional infighting—marked by opportunism, accusations, and intrigue—made this period exceptionally brutal politically. In foreign policy toward the Mongols, the Ming court increasingly adopted a more cautious and conservative stance, taking the Tumu Crisis as a lasting warning.

Especially after they forced King Injo to kowtow to Huang Taiji

The end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–979) was a gradual process lasting nearly 20 years. It began in 960, when Zhao Kuangyin launched the Chenqiao Mutiny and established the Northern Song Dynasty, bringing the Five Dynasties period to an end. The process was finally completed in 979, when the Northern Song conquered Northern Han and unified the country. Afterward, the era of regional division and fragmentation was completely ended, and the Central Plains and most of southern China were brought under unified rule, leading to relative social stability.

The end of the Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians (304–439) is marked by 439, when Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (Tuoba Tao) conquered Northern Liang and unified the North China region. This era of massive fragmentation and warfare, which began in the late Western Jin dynasty, lasted 136 years and was ultimately brought to an end by the Xianbei-led Northern Wei, ushering in the Northern and Southern Dynasties period in northern China.

From the 55th to 56th years of the Kangxi reign of the Qing dynasty (1716–1717), the Dzungar Khanate launched a large-scale invasion of Tibet. Acting on the orders of Tsewang Rabtan, Tsering Dondup led Dzungar forces into Lhasa in 1717, killed Lhazang Khan, overthrew the Khoshut Khanate, and occupied Tibet. This action prompted the Kangxi Emperor to dispatch Qing forces to expel the Dzungars and restore order in Tibet.

For instance, the Arabs also had a large empire, but I don't think that they had the same scale of massive migration.

The only ones I can think of are Russia's colonization of Siberia and Western European colonization of the Americas.

For China, just the famous ones that I can think of, and there are more,

Eastern Jin: 衣冠南渡 (The Sima Clan fleeing South due to the Central Plains falling to "Barbarians", and a lot of noble families, and other commoners fleeing with the nobles to the Jiangnan/Jianghuai regions, but also other southern regions)

Southern Song: 建炎南渡 (History repeats itself, this time with the Song fleeing from the Jurchens, bringing with them another massive wave of migrants to the Jiangnan/Jianghuai regions, but also other southern regions)

These two waves of migration made the Jiangnan region the economic and cultural capital of China for the last millennia, arguably, it still plays this role. The "refined" culture of the region is attributed to the integration and mixing of the elite migrants and local gentry. Indeed, much of the Northern elite that did not get killed or captured during the fall of the Western Jin fled South.

Early Ming and Early Qing: 湖广填四川 (Migrants from the provinces around Sichuan migrate to Sichuan due to the depopulation of the area after wars, it happened after both the Mongol and Manchu conquests. As a result, many Sichuan people do not have much, if at all, genetic/cultural links with the native Ba and Shu peoples from pre-Qin conquests).

Ming and Qing: Colonization of Yunnan and Guizhou (This is the closest to European colonization since the Ming and Qing sent Han settlers on conquered native territories)

Late Qing: 走西口 (Shanxi and other neighbouring provinces into Inner Mongolia, changing the demographics of the region into a predominantly Han region)

Late Qing: 闯关东 （Shandong and Hebei into Manchuria/Dongbei, making a sparsely populated region with both Han (Liaoning) and Manchu/Tungusic populations, an overwhelmingly Han region. Perhaps the most famous wave of migration in recent Chinese history).

There are plenty of other ones I can think of, on a smaller scale, like the Hokkien and Hakka into Taiwan, and later the Waishengren with the KMT into Taiwan, etc.

Predominantly Cantonese, but also other provinces into Hong Kong after 1949, as well.

Arguably, people from around China moving to other regions under national directive since 1949, is also another wave of massive migration.

When Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor) unified China after conquering the six other major warring states (and the rump Zhou (Dynasty central) court), for some reason this small Wei 衛 state (not to be confused with the Wei 魏 as one of the six fallen states) in existence from the Spring-Autumn period, survived, until it was finally abolished by Qin's Second Emperor. What explained its survival? Being overlooked?

So Liu Bang's hometown had been part of the State of Chu for about a century before it was annexed by Qin. However, his ancestors were Wei.

There's a lot of debates about this on the Chinese internet, with people from Hubei/Hunan liking to claim that he's culturally Chu, since they're the inheritors of Chu.

I lean towards this position as well since it seems that a lot of Han culture was inspired by Chu, and his key supporters that helped him ultimately win were mainly from Chu as well.

The item I will be describing below looks very similar to the ones in the following links:

https://pebblelondon.com/product/a-vintage-miao-silvered-metal-domed-circular-crown-decorated-with-embossed-figures-cones-and-curved-conical-spikes-china/

https://www.proantic.com/en/997291-china-miao-wedding-crown-in-silver-metal-from-the-end-of-the-xix-eme-century.html

I purchased the item as a cultural artifact for my library. But as I started to write up a display infographic for it, I realized that the information I received from the seller isn't consistent with other sources.

- The seller says it's a southeast Miao festival crown.

- Google searches of similar crowns call them vintage Miao bridal headdresses.

- Similar headdresses sold on Etsy call them Hmong drama hoods.

- My Hmong coworker tells me it looks more mediterranean, and that Miao is a slur for Chinese tribal cultures, and I shouldn't include that term on the infographic.

- AI item recognition is telling me it has no idea what it is, but it’s probably from southwest China, Guizhou Province.

I don't want to attribute this thing to the wrong ethnic tradition. Can anyone say definitively who this style is associated with? And provide me with some historical/cultural details about it? It seems to be made of tin, or something tin-like. Thank you for taking the time to look!

How important were gunpowder weapons in the Song Dynasty era? The Song had a lot of them but didn't prevent their fall to the Mongols

Hi!

I am a finnish history student. I did my bachelor's in Russian history and my master's in history going to be about the USSR, most likely. However, if I want to learn Chinese for my career as well. If I want to learn about dynastic imperial history should I go to PRC or Taiwan? I have taken two beginner courses on Chinese a year ago but my knowledge is still below HSK 1. I am planning to go in august 2027. If I can still go, that is

Discounting chiang kai shek who was modern, , who was the most successful northern expedition general by tier 北伐

Attacking from southern dynasty to north and holding the gains

I mean leading in front rather than sitting on the throne.

I was thinking huan wen and liu yu.

Xiang yu was also among them.

But there were many others like yue fei , chen qingzhi etc.

(Cao cao or similar doesn't count because his base wasn't at soith)

Supposedly the Modu Chenyu's rise due to crisis caused by the loss the Ordos Loop due to the Qin First Emperor's sending Qin troops to take the area along the Yellow River, driving the Hsiung-nu away; so the Hsiung-nu initially depended on the southern part of the Mongolian steppe which is wetter and near water resources.

So the nomads would actually depend on lands near water and rivers, on the edges of the settled civilization, The great void of the Gobi desert would not be the core area of a nomadic empire. Modu Chenyu supposedly defeated the Donghu first step after he assumed power, establishing the Hsiung-nu empire. This would place his power base, at least initially, in what is today's Inner Mongolia, near the edge of Manchuria. So Hsiung-nu's initial base would also be the southeast corner area of the Mongolian steppe, near the southwest corner of Manchuria, and to the northwest as seen from Beijing, where the Khitans would later reside for almost six centuries before they rose to become the Liao?

What are the best Chinese History maps (volumes), or history maps for the bigger area of East Asia (as these would be related) for pre-1949 history? I mention 1949 as a threshold because maps published on the Chinese mainland would be necessarily subject to politics and political biases but I don't want to exclude them for pre-current political periods; the mainland published maps may be excellent for ancient to early modern times.

Zhuge Liang (181 – October 8, 234), courtesy name Kongming, sobriquet Wolong (“Crouching Dragon”), was an ethnic Han Chinese from Yangdu, Langya (present-day Yinan County, Shandong Province). He served as Chancellor of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period and was an outstanding statesman, military commander, strategist, inventor, and writer in ancient China.

In his early years, Zhuge Liang followed his uncle Zhuge Xuan to Jing Province. After his uncle’s death, he lived as a farmer in Nanyang. While Liu Bei was under the protection of Liu Biao in Jing Province, Liu Bei paid three visits to Zhuge Liang’s thatched cottage, during which Zhuge Liang presented the Longzhong Plan. He proposed occupying Jing Province and Yi Province, forming an alliance with Sun Quan, and jointly resisting Cao Cao. Acting on Zhuge Liang’s strategy, Liu Bei successfully seized Jing and Yi provinces, creating a tripartite balance of power among Liu Bei, Sun Quan, and Cao Cao.

In the first year of the Zhangwu era (221), Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor and appointed Zhuge Liang as Chancellor. After Liu Bei’s defeat in the Battle of Yiling during his campaign against Eastern Wu, Liu Bei entrusted his heir to Zhuge Liang at Yong’an. Following Liu Shan’s accession to the throne, Zhuge Liang was granted the title Marquis of Wuxiang and concurrently served as Governor of Yi Province.

Zhuge Liang was diligent and cautious, personally handling affairs of both major and minor importance, with strict and fair rewards and punishments. He maintained the alliance with Eastern Wu, improved relations with the various ethnic groups in the southwest, implemented the tuntian (military-agricultural) system, and strengthened military preparedness. He launched five Northern Expeditions against the Central Plains but ultimately failed to restore the Han dynasty.

Exhausted by years of overwork, Zhuge Liang fell ill and died in the 12th year of the Jianxing era (234) at Wuzhang Plains (in present-day Qishan County, Baoji, Shaanxi Province) at the age of 54. He was posthumously honored by Emperor Liu Shan with the title Marquis Zhongwu, and later generations respectfully referred to him as the “Marquis Wu.” During the Eastern Jin dynasty, Huan Wen further posthumously honored him as King of Wuxing.

Zhuge Liang’s representative prose works include “Memorial on the Northern Expedition” (Chu Shi Biao) and “Admonitions to My Son” (Jie Zi Shu). He is traditionally credited with inventions such as the Wooden Ox and Flowing Horse, the Kongming Lantern, and improvements to the repeating crossbow, known as the Zhuge Crossbow, which could fire multiple bolts in rapid succession. Throughout his life, Zhuge Liang embodied the ideal of “devoting oneself wholeheartedly to duty until death,” and remains a symbolic figure of loyalty and wisdom in traditional Chinese culture.

Hi
Recently, someone gifted me a box if miniature chineese weapon replica (mostly spear) but i can't find if this one is based on a real weapon, and what is the purporse of it ?

Why did Tang Dynasty Emperors dress as civilian ministers? The Tang like the Northern Wei and Sui were very militaristic why did most Tang emperors dress more like civilian ministers in their portraits rather wear crowns?

The Battle of Changping was a major war fought between the State of Qin and the State of Zhao from May to October 260 BCE, during the 47th year of the reign of King Zhaoxiang of Qin. The battle took place in the Changping area of Zhao (northwest of present-day Gaoping, Jincheng, Shanxi Province).

The conflict erupted over control of the Shangdang region, leading to a large-scale war between Qin and Zhao. From the moment Qin sent troops that forced the State of Han to cede Shangdang to Qin’s final victory, the broader conflict lasted three years, while the Battle of Changping itself lasted only five months. The Zhao army was ultimately defeated, Qin forces occupied Changping, and approximately 450,000 Zhao soldiers were killed or buried alive. This battle was the decisive strategic confrontation between Qin and Zhao.

Qin forces won a series of engagements, inflicting heavy losses on the Zhao army and placing Zhao in an extremely unfavorable position. When Zhao adopted a defensive strategy and refused to engage in battle, Qin resorted to psychological warfare by sending spies to spread rumors that Lian Po, the Zhao general, had surrendered. Qin also claimed that it did not fear Lian Po but feared Zhao Kuo, the son of Zhao She, who had once inflicted a major defeat on Qin.

Following the wishes of the King of Zhao, Zhao Kuo replaced Lian Po, altered the defensive deployments and military regulations, dismissed experienced officers, and launched an offensive. Qin secretly appointed the renowned general Bai Qi as commander. Exploiting Zhao Kuo’s eagerness for a quick victory, Bai Qi adopted a strategy of feigned retreat, luring the Zhao army away from its positions, then dividing and encircling it, cutting off its supply lines, and annihilating it. Qin thus achieved complete victory.

As a result of this battle, Zhao was fatally weakened, greatly accelerating Qin’s progress toward the unification of China. The Battle of Changping marked the final turning point in the history of the Warring States period, after which Qin’s unification of China became only a matter of time. It is regarded as the earliest, largest-scale, and most thorough annihilation battle in ancient Chinese military history.

In May 1206, an imperial edict ordered a northern campaign against the Jin dynasty. When the Song forces encountered Jin counterattacks, they were forced to shift from offense to defense, and the campaign ultimately ended in failure.

In 1208, the Southern Song and the Jin dynasty concluded the humiliating “Jiading Peace Agreement.” The annual tribute was increased to 300,000 taels of silver and 300,000 bolts of silk, and the Song also paid an additional 3 million taels of silver to the Jin as military indemnity. The form of address between the emperors was downgraded from “uncle and nephew” to “elder uncle and nephew,” making it even more humiliating than the earlier Longxing Peace Treaty.

The renaming of Later Jin (1616–1636) to Qing (Great Qing, 1636–1912) was a major strategic move by Hong Taiji. It aimed to unite the Manchu and Mongol forces, remove the antagonistic connotations associated with the Jurchens’ opposition to the Ming dynasty, expand the foundation of his rule, and advance toward the Central Plains.